However, it is difficult to tell whether they are cognates (linguistic siblings from a common origin), or if the Proto-Germanic form reflects an early borrowing from Celtic. The term is related to Proto-Celtic * rūna ('secret, magic'), which is attested in Old Irish rún ('mystery, secret'), Middle Welsh rin ('mystery, charm'), or Middle Breton rin ('secret wisdom'), and possibly also in the ancient Gaulish Cobrunus (< * com-rūnos 'confident' compare Middle Welsh cyfrin, Middle Breton queffrin, Middle Irish comrún 'shared secret, confidence') and Sacruna (< * sacro-runa 'sacred secret'), or in Lepontic Runatis (< runo-ātis 'belonging to the secret'). The earliest Germanic epigraphic attestation is the Primitive Norse rūnō (accusative singular), found on the Einang stone (A.D. It is the source of Gothic rūna ( 𐍂𐌿𐌽𐌰, 'secret, mystery, counsel'), Old English rún ('whisper, mystery, secret, rune'), Old Saxon rūna ('secret counsel, confidential talk'), Middle Dutch rūne ('id'), Old High German rūna ('secret, mystery'), and Old Norse rún ('secret, mystery, rune'). The name stems from a Proto-Germanic form reconstructed as * rūnō, which may be translated as 'secret, mystery secret conversation rune'. 350–400), reading ðagastiz runo faihido ("dguest painted/wrote this runic inscription"), is the earliest Germanic epigraphic attestation of the term. The inscription on the Einang stone (A.D. Runes continue to be used in a wide variety of ways in modern popular culture. A "West Germanic hypothesis" suggests transmission via Elbe Germanic groups, while a " Gothic hypothesis" presumes transmission via East Germanic expansion. The oldest clear inscriptions are found in Denmark and northern Germany. The process of transmission of the script is unknown. At the time, all of these scripts had the same angular letter shapes suited for epigraphy, which would become characteristic of the runes and related scripts in the region. Early runes may have developed from the Raetic, Venetic, Etruscan, or Old Latin as candidates. The exact development of the early runic alphabet remains unclear but the script ultimately stems from the Phoenician alphabet. The Younger Futhark developed further into the medieval runes (1100–1500), and the Dalecarlian runes ( c. The Younger Futhark is divided further into the long-branch runes (also called Danish, although they were also used in Norway, Sweden, and Frisia) short-branch or Rök runes (also called Swedish-Norwegian, although they were also used in Denmark) and the stavlösa or Hälsinge runes ( staveless runes). The three best-known runic alphabets are the Elder Futhark (ca. Up until the early 20th century, runes were still used in rural Sweden for decorative purposes in Dalarna and on runic calendars. However, the use of runes persisted for specialized purposes beyond this period. 700 in central Europe and 1100 in northern Europe. Runes were generally replaced by the Latin alphabet as the cultures that had used runes underwent Christianisation, by approximately A.D. 50 and Roman senator Tacitus's potential description of rune use from around A.D.
150, with a potentially earlier inscription dating to A.D. The earliest secure runic inscriptions date from around A.D.
Runology forms a specialised branch of Germanic philology. Runology is the scholastic study of the runic alphabets, runic inscriptions, runestones, and their history. The Scandinavian variants are also known as futhark or fuþark (derived from their first six letters of the script: F, U, Þ, A, R, and K) the Anglo-Saxon variant is futhorc or fuþorc (due to sound-changes undergone in Old English by the names of those six letters). Examples of this are often referred to as Begriffsrunen by academics. In addition to representing a sound value (a phoneme), runes can be used to represent the concepts after which they are named ( ideographs). Runes were used to write various Germanic languages (with some exceptions) before they adopted the Latin alphabet, and for specialised purposes thereafter. Runes are the letters in a set of related alphabets known as runic alphabets native to the Germanic peoples. BCEĪdlam (slight influence from Arabic) 1989 CE
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